Performance and Micro-Pacing Strategies in a Freestyle Cross-Country Skiing Distance Race.

This study examined the micro-pacing strategies during a distance freestyle cross-country (XC) skiing competition. Nine female and 10 male highly trained XC skiers wore a GNSS device during a FIS-sanctioned race. The course was ~4900 m; women completed two-laps; men completed three-laps. The course was divided into uphill (S1, S3, S5, S7), downhill (S2, S4, S6, S8), and flat (S9) sections for analyses. Statistical parametric mapping was used to determine the course positions (clusters) where total race time or section time was significantly associated with instantaneous skiing speed. Total race time was associated with instantaneous skiing speed during a cluster in S1 on lap 2 for both sexes (t ≥ 5.899, p ≤ 0.008). The two longest uphill sections (S1; S5) and the flat section (S9) contained clusters where section times were related to instantaneous skiing speed for both sexes (p < 0.05). The fastest woman gained 6.9 s on the slowest woman during a cluster in S1 on lap 1 and 7.3 s during a cluster in S9 on lap 1. The fastest man gained 51.7 s on the slowest man over all clusters in S5 over the 3 laps combined. Compared to skiers with longer total race times, skiers with shorter race times skied with faster instantaneous speeds in some clusters of the uphill sections, as well as on the flat section of the course. This study also identified different relative micro-pacing strategies for women and men during freestyle distance XC skiing races. Finally, statistical parametric mapping analyses can help to identify individual strengths and weaknesses for guiding training programs and optimise competition pacing strategies.

Performance-determining factors in biathlon prone shooting without physical stress.

This study investigated the most important factors determining biathlon prone shooting performance. Ten female and 16 male biathletes (age 19.9 ± 2.9 years) from the national teams of Finland and Vuokatti-Ruka Sports Academy performed 6 × 5 biathlon prone shooting shots without physical stress under laboratory conditions. Shooting performance and multiple aiming point trajectory variables were measured together with an analysis of triggering force. Based on the aiming point trajectory data principal component analysis, we identified four technical components in biathlon prone shooting: stability of hold, aiming accuracy, cleanness of triggering, and timing of triggering. Multiple regression analysis (MRA) further determined that cleanness of triggering, aiming accuracy, and timing of triggering accounted for 80% of mean shooting performance (p < 0.001). Better stability of hold, aiming accuracy and cleanness of triggering were directly associated with better shooting performance (0.62 ≤ |r| ≥0.79, all p < 0.001). Better stability of hold measures were also associated with better cleanness of triggering, and higher pre-shot trigger force levels were associated with better stability of hold and cleanness of triggering. These results indicate that with both direct and indirect effects on performance, stability of hold seems to be a general prerequisite for successful biathlon shooting. The results also highlight the importance of aiming accuracy, cleanness and timing of triggering, along with a high pre-shot trigger force level. The variables identified in this study could be used to assess biathletes' performance in the most relevant shooting technical aspects to guide the emphasis of their shooting training.

Aiming strategy affects performance-related factors in biathlon standing shooting.

This study focused on investigating differences in shooting performance and performance-related factors between two different aiming strategies (HOLD, low radial velocity during the approach 0.4-0.2 seconds before triggering, and TIMING, high radial velocity) in biathlon standing shooting. A total of 23 biathletes fired 8 × 5 standing shots at rest (REST) and 2 × 5 shots during a race simulation (RACE). Shooting performance (hit point distance from the center of the target), aiming point trajectory and postural balance were measured from each shot. Shooting performance was similar both at REST (HOLD 33 ± 5 mm vs TIMING 38 ± 8 mm, P = .111) and in RACE (40 ± 11 mm vs 47 ± 12 mm, P = .194). Better shooting performance was related to smaller distance of the aiming point mean location (REST r = 0.93, P < .001, RACE r = 0.72, P = .018) and higher time spent within ⅔ of the distance of the hit area edge from the center 0.6-0.0 seconds before triggering (REST r=-0.88, P = .001, RACE r=-0.73, P = .016) in HOLD, and to lower aiming point total velocity 0.6-0.0 seconds before triggering (REST r = 0.77, P = .009, RACE r = 0.88, P = .001) and less aiming point movement 0.2-0.0 seconds before triggering (REST r = 0.82, P = .003, RACE r = 0.72, P = .012) in TIMING. Postural balance was related to shooting performance at REST in both groups and in RACE in TIMING. Biathletes using the hold strategy should focus on stabilizing the aiming point before triggering and aiming at the center, whereas biathletes using the timing strategy benefit of decreasing the total velocity during the final approach as well as minimizing the aiming point movement right before triggering.

Performance and Micro-Pacing Strategies in a Classic Cross-Country Skiing Sprint Race.

The purpose of the present study was to analyze micro-pacing strategies in cross-country skiing, and their relation to section and total race times. Eleven competitive female cross-country skiers were tracked during a classic sprint time-trial race using a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) unit. A coordinate mapping procedure was applied to the GNSS unit measurements to analyze the instantaneous velocities and split times. The track was divided into nine sections and individual section times were calculated. Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) was used to analyze the relationships between instantaneous velocity and section or total race time. SPM analyses revealed two uphill sections and one flat section where greater instantaneous velocities were related to faster total race times. The first major uphill section on the track demonstrated a more conservative micro-pacing strategy (SPM supra-threshold clusters along the entire uphill, p < 0.05-0.001) compared to the more aggressive strategy used in the last uphill section (clusters on the first half of the uphill, p < 0.05-0.001). Faster flat section times were associated with greater instantaneous velocities throughout the section (p < 0.001), while faster downhill section times were related to greater instantaneous velocities at the top of the downhill (p < 0.001), and in the downhill turns (p < 0.001). In conclusion, micro-pacing strategies were related to overall skiing performance and distinct track sections were identified where instantaneous velocities were related to section or total race times. In order to improve skiing performance, athletes could focus on more aggressive pacing early on in the "end spurt", during the transitions from uphill to flat sections, and during the transitions from flat or uphill to downhill sections.

Technical determinants of biathlon standing shooting performance before and after race simulation.

The aim of this study was to identify performance-determining factors in biathlon standing shooting in rest and after intense exercise. Eight Finnish national- and nine junior-team biathletes participated in the study. Participants fired 40 resting shots (REST) and 2 × 5 competition simulation shots (LOAD) after 5 minutes of roller skiing at 95% of peak heart rate. Hit percentage, aiming point trajectory and postural balance were measured from each shot. Cleanness of triggering (ATV, movement of the aiming point 0-0.2 second before the shot) and vertical stability of hold (DevY) were the most important components affecting shooting performance both in REST (DevY, R = -0.61, P < .01; ATV, R = -0.65, P < .01) and in LOAD (DevY, R = -0.50, P < .05; ATV, R = -0.77, P < .001). Postural balance, especially in shooting direction, was related to DevY and ATV. Stability of hold in horizontal (F(1,15) = 7.025, P < .05) and vertical (F(1,15) = 21.285, P < .001) directions, aiming accuracy (F(1,15) = 9.060, P < .01), and cleanness of triggering (F(1,15) = 59.584, P < .001) decreased from REST to LOAD, accompanied by a decrease in postural balance. National- and junior-team biathletes differed only in hit percentage in REST (92 ± 8% vs 81 ± 8%, P < .05) and left leg postural balance in shooting direction in LOAD (0.31 ± 0.18 mm vs 0.52 ± 0.20 mm, P < .05), and the intense exercise affected the shooting technical components similarly in both national and junior groups. Biathletes should focus on cleanness of triggering and vertical stability of hold in order to improve biathlon standing shooting performance. More stable postural balance in shooting direction could help to improve these shooting technical components.

Relation of Elite Rifle Shooters' Technique-Test Measures to Competition Performance.

PURPOSE: To describe the long-term changes in shooting technique in relation to competition performances in elite air-rifle shooters. METHODS: Seventeen elite shooters completed simulated air-rifle shooting-competition series in 3 consecutive seasons, participating on 15 ± 7 testing occasions. Shooting score and aiming-point-trajectory variables were obtained with an optoelectronic shooting device, and postural-balance variables were measured with force platform. Shooters' competition results were collected from all international and national competitions during the 3-y period. RESULTS: Mean test score, stability of hold, aiming accuracy, cleanness of triggering, and postural balance improved during the 3-y period (ANOVA, time, P < .05-.01). Seasonal mean test results in stability of hold (R = -.70, P = .000) and cleanness of triggering (R = -.75, P = .000) were related to competition performances. Changes in stability of hold (R = -.61, P = .000) and cleanness of triggering (R = -.39, P = .022) were also related to the changes in competition performances. Postural balance in shooting direction was more related to cleanness of triggering (R = .57, P = .000), whereas balance in cross-shooting direction was more related to stability of hold (R = .70, P = .000). CONCLUSIONS: The shooting-technique testing used in the current study seems to be a valid and useful tool for long-term performance assessment. Stability of hold, cleanness of triggering, and postural balance can be further developed even at the elite level, resulting in improved competition performances.